
三 研究价值
(一)理论意义
代理人谋求自主性是代理人战争中的一种常见现象,但在理论上却讨论得不够。很多研究认为施动方可以利用代理人战争促进自身的利益,而弱小的代理人被假定为服从施动方命令的工具。实际上,代理关系远非单向的,代理人与施动方之间存在大量、持续的博弈,这导致施动方难以轻易地完全控制代理人战争的进程。因此,当人们在讨论代理人战争时,还应当注意到如下事实。
一是突破“施动方中心”范式是非常有必要的。“施动方中心”的研究范式在逻辑、方法上是不完整的,很容易忽视或者低估代理人在代理人战争中的自主角色和代理人战争中的代理成本。施动方无法完全压缩代理人自主性空间,因此应以更平衡的视角来看待代理关系中的互动和博弈。
二是代理关系应被理解为复杂的双向博弈过程。施动方与代理人在互动中分工协作、各取所需,以期实现各自利益最大化,代理关系的张力始终无法彻底消除,以静态的、单向的视角看待这种关系过于简单化,不能很好地揭示代理关系的动态博弈过程。
三是美国难以搭建起驾驭中东代理人战争的架构。在代理人战争中,施动方与代理人之间存在不完全相同的利益和不对称的关系,在缺乏合适激励和有效监督的情形下,不可避免地出现代理人谋求扩大自主性的现象。影响或约束代理人的行为和偏好往往要付出巨大的激励成本和监督成本,这对施动方的管控能力和意愿构成巨大挑战。当美国试图管控中东代理人的背离,就需要承担管控成本,当管控所要耗费的成本超过代理收益,搭建一体化约束架构的努力也将遭到削弱。
鉴于以上认识,本书尝试将三个关键维度嵌入“委托—代理”分析框架中,之所以作出这一设想是基于如下考虑。
第一,“委托—代理”框架的兼容性较强。该框架最早产生于经济学,逐渐渗透到管理学、社会学、法学和政治学等领域,其之所以具有较强的跨学科扩散优点,是因为关心一个普遍存在的且难以回避的问题:施动方与代理人之间因为利益分歧和信息不对称等原因,使得代理人的自主性难以被完全管控,并由此造成“代理困境”(proxy dilemma)和代理成本。而在非正当的代理情景中(本书特指代理人战争)存在同样的问题指向,这为“委托—代理”框架进一步向代理人战争研究领域拓展提供了一定的兼容空间。
第二,“委托—代理”框架不过分侧重“委托人中心”范式,因而,可以被用来分析代理人战争中施动方与代理人相互作用过程,以更平衡的视角观察代理人自主行为的产生,这是对“施动方中心”范式的挑战和补充。
第三,“委托—代理”框架是一个动态的、开放式的分析框架,不仅可以较好地适应代理关系的变化,也可以兼容多种观察维度,如利益、激励和监督三个维度与该分析框架并不抵触。
总之,在“委托—代理”的分析框架下,结合三个维度来观察代理人战争中的代理人自主性问题,对拓展、转变代理人战争的既有研究范式和完善代理人战争理论谱系具有一定的价值。
(二)现实意义
冷战时期,在相互确保摧毁的“核平衡”威慑下,美苏超级霸权为避免直接对抗并导致冲突失控,倾向于在全世界范围内利用代理人战争实现各自的地缘战略目标,致使很多亚非拉发展中国家陷入长期的内部冲突和动荡。冷战结束后,代理人战争一度从狂热状态陷入冷却期、潜伏期。但是,代理人战争的逻辑和吸引力并没有完全消失。随着主要经济体日益融合,陷入冲突的代价日益增大,因此,战争预计将从国家间的显性冲突转向隐性的代理人战争,在可推诿否认的缓冲区间进行。[113]国家资助代理人作战的趋势在中东地区尤为明显,特别是“9·11”事件和伊拉克战争之后,中东的代理人战争开始回潮并不断发酵,而2011年爆发的西亚北非动荡将这一波代理人战争浪潮推向新的高度。美、俄等域外大国和沙特阿拉伯、伊朗、土耳其等地区中等强国为追求各自的目标同时避免卷入直接战争带来的风险,纷纷运用当地代理人在中东开展旷日持久的冲突,加剧了中东乱局的长期化、复杂化。
近几年来,大国战略竞争重现,现实主义和地缘政治在加速回归,美国与俄罗斯在中东、东欧开展的旷日持久的代理人战争已经引起国际社会广泛关注。随着中国综合国力和国际地位的提升,中国面临越来越大的地区和全球层面战略竞争压力。美国2018年《国防战略报告》指出:“国家间的战略竞争现在是美国国家安全的首要问题”。自特朗普政府以来,美国将中国视为系统性的战略对手,对华政策越来越具有竞争、对抗的色彩。针对大国竞争加剧的现实,代理人战争研究的权威学者安德鲁·芒福德确定了四种趋势:“反恐战争综合症”、私营军事企业的崛起、数字技术的发展、中国崛起。他认为这四种趋势会增加决策者对代理人战争的兴趣和发起频率。毫无疑问,代理人战争将影响国际政治,塑造武装冲突的未来,成为大国战略竞争的“衍生品”。基于上述判断,本书至少具备以下现实意义。
一是密切关注美国的中东代理人战争回潮,保护中国的海外利益。美国在中东进行持续战略收缩,试图通过发展地区代理人网络来维系其中东霸权。在过去十年中,中东国家的国内冲突的数量有所增加,而且国内冲突的国际化特征显著,这意味着将有更多大国通过代理人战争介入中东地区事务。未来很长一段时期,中东的大多数冲突将以代理人战争形式进行,美国将成为躲在远处的“影子”力量,操纵中东政治和安全事务。对此,中国必须更新战略思维,预见到中东地区安全环境的快速变化,并相应做出政策调整。
二是防范潜在对手利用代理人战争遏制中国发展。潜在对手与中国发生正面抗衡、冲突乃至战争的代价越来越高昂,因此转而采取代理人战略扰乱中国的和平发展环境和遏制中国地区和全球影响力则具有一定的可能性。约翰·米尔斯海默曾建议美国应当为未来最可能与中国在非洲争夺资源而发生非对称和次国家代理人战争做好准备。[114]美国战略与国际研究中心的报告指出,大国之间“灰色地带”(Gray Zone)竞争日益加剧,扶植代理人被视为“灰色地带”竞争的有效手段之一。[115]因此,中国需要严密关注潜在对手的印太和全球安全战略变化,防范外部力量利用中国内部、周边地区和全球范围的各类代理人,以非对称的方式来破坏中国主权和领土完整,迟滞中国经济发展,扰乱“一带一路”沿线地区的安全秩序,恶化中国的内外发展环境,从而遏制中国的全面崛起。
三是关注战争形态演变,革新传统安全思维。战争的形态在持续演变,甚至有学者指出,人类正在通向“多边疆战争的新时代”,将没有统一的战场、没有一致的战线、没有同一的结果,出现多领域、多主体、多形态和多结果同时发生的复合现象。[116]代理人战争作为多边疆战争的一部分,几乎同步发生深刻的变化。坎迪斯·荣德斯(Candace Rondeaux)等学者指出,“在这个代理人战争的新时代,技术、信息和武器的扩散已经打破了国家对使用武力的垄断”,[117]武力运用进一步从国家军队流散到多元行为体或由国家外包(Outsourcing)给私人武装(如军事安保公司、雇佣军等),出现武力“去中心化”现象。乔治城大学防务战略研究教授肖恩·麦克法特指出:各类武装力量在利益驱使下游荡于战场,不但国际法无法阻止他们,相反国际社会对他们的服务需求每年都在增长,与战争相关的东西曾经被认为理所当然地由政府垄断,而现在可以从市场上买到,“这是我们这个时代最危险的趋势之一”。面对这种挑战,他指出,“战争正在转入地下,西方必须发展自己的‘影子战争’和更好地利用代理人部队和雇佣军”。[118]可以预见的是,大国间的蛮力较量正在发生转型,冲突往往发生在“灰色地带”,并转化为非国家行为体之间的“影子战争”。
美国国家战略文件高度重视大国竞争的重新出现,美国国防规划者不断加快将代理人力量纳入美国的国防战略转型规划,作为优化部队规模和结构的一部分。[119]未来,美国不但运用大规模常规战争应对大国博弈,还将加大对特种作战司令部、网络司令部的资源投入,以及评估主要竞争对手的代理人力量和能力。
四是认清和利用美国在中东开展代理人战争的“软肋”。我们应认识到美国在中东扶植的代理人存在高度自主性,这会增加美国管控代理人战争进程的难度。施动方总是试图扩大自身的优势,但是在现实中却又难以管控“不完美代理人”。代理人的行为路径不可能总是被躲在身后的力量所规划,代理关系通常处于动态变化中而不是“铁板一块”。因此,我们有必要收集更多有关代理人(包括潜在代理人)的信息,以了解他们的真实目标和能力。在此基础上,进一步评估和识别美国及其中东代理人的利益匹配度以及激励、监督难题。只有认清代理人与外部力量之间的代理关系所存在的“软肋”,才能有助于我们在中东地区应对当下和未来的非对称、非常规的代理人战争及其带来的风险。
总之,对于以上的挑战,我们既要警惕代理人战争的战略破坏力,也应当认识到其局限性。虽然大国、强国试图通过“长臂干预”的方式影响目标国和地区局势的发展,但是它们并不能完全主导这个进程的走向,因为施动方与代理人的目标和利益诉求并不完全相同(即便相同也可能出现分化),代理人的自主性空间难以被彻底压缩,代理人的行为在调节无效的情况下会阻碍、破坏甚至反噬施动方的利益和原本的目标。因此,控制战争的方式、节奏和后果的阀门不一定由施动方掌握。研究者可借助委托—代理分析框架下的三个维度(利益、激励、监督)来观察代理人战争的不确定性以及代理关系的高昂成本和脆弱性。
[1] James Kenneth Wither,“Outsourcing Warfare:Proxy Forces in Contemporary Armed Conflicts”,Security and Defence Quarterly,Vol.31,No.4,2020,p.17.
[2] [古希腊]修昔底德:《伯罗奔尼撒战争史》,谢德风译,商务印书馆2010年版,第260—271页。
[3] 《孙子兵法·三十六计》第三计“借刀杀人”。
[4] Amos C.Fox,“Conflict and the Need for a Theory of Proxy Warfare”,Journal of Strategic Security,Vol.12,No.1,2019,p.49.
[5] Andrew Mumford,Proxy Warfare,Cambridge:Polity,2013,p.11;Geraint Hughes,My Enemy's Enemy:Proxy Warfare in International Politics,Eastbourne,U.K.:Sussex Academic Press,2012,p.11;Tyrone L.Groh,Proxy War:The Least Bad Option,Stanford,Calif:Stanford University Press,2019,pp.28-29;Assaf Moghadam and Michel Wyss,“The Political Power of Proxies:Why Nonstate Actors Use Local Surrogates”,International Security,Vol.44,No.4,2020,p.119.
[6] 出自《孙膑兵法·月战》。
[7] 李零:《波斯笔记》,生活·读书·新知三联书店2019年版。
[8] Vladimir Rauta,“Proxy Warfare and the Future of Conflict:Take Two”,The RUSI Journal,Vol.165,No.2,2020,p.1.
[9] Candace Rondeaux,David Sterman,“Twenty-First Century Proxy Warfare:Confronting Strategic Innovation in a Multipolar World”,New America,Feb.,2019,p.56.
[10] 许倬云:《西周史》,生活·读书·新知三联书店2018年版,第二章第七节;《史记·周本纪》;《古本竹书纪年·周纪》;《今本竹书纪年·文丁》;杨宽:《西周史》,上海人民出版社1999年版,第一编第三章第三节。
[11] [意]尼科洛·马基雅维利:《兵法》,袁坚译,商务印书馆2014年版,第13—14页。
[12] (晋)陈寿:《三国志》,中华书局1982年版,具体参见《三国志·蜀书·关张马黄赵传》《三国志·魏志十·荀彧传》《三国志·魏志十三·钟繇传》。
[13] [美]艾伦·布林克利:《美国史1492—1997》,邵旭东译,海南出版社2009年版,第645页。
[14] Brandon Merrell,“Denmark(1940-45):Armed Resistance and Agency Slippage in Germany's Model Protectorate”,in Proxy Wars Suppressing Violence through Local Agents,Edited by Eli Berman and David A.Lake,Cornell University Press,2019,p.54.
[15] Alex Marshall,“From Civil War to Proxy War:Past History and Current Dilemmas”,Small Wars & Insurgencies,Vol.27,No.2,2016,pp.185-189.
[16] Nick Turse,“Washington Puts Its Money on Proxy War”,Aljazeera,Aug.15,2012,https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2012/08/20128128345053728.html;Seyom Brown,“Purposes and Pitfalls of War by Proxy:A Systemic Analysis”,Small Wars & Insurgencies,Vol.27,No.2,2016,p.251.
[17] Geraint Hughes,My Enermy's Enermy:Proxy Warfare in International Politics,Sussex Academic Press,2012,pp.50-59.
[18] Brian Glyn William,“Fighting with a Double-Edged Sword?”,in Making Sense of Proxy Wars,edited by Michael A.Innes,Washington D.C.:Potomac Book,2012,pp.63-73.
[19] Brittany Benowitz,Tommy Ross,“Time to Get a Handle on America's Conduct of Proxy Warfare”,Lawfare Institute,April 9,2020.
[20] Danniel Byman,“Approximating War”,The National Interest,September/October,2018,p.19.
[21] Karl W.Deutsch,“External Involvement in International Wars”,in Harry Eckstein,ed.,Internal War:Problems and Approaches,New York:Free Press of Glencoe,1964,p.102.
[22] Abbas Farasoo,“Rethinking Proxy War Theory in IR:A Critical Analysis of Principal-Agent Theory”,International Studies Review,Vol.23,No.4,2021,p.1835.
[23] Yaacov Bar Siman Tov,“The Strategy of War by Proxy”,Cooperation and Conflict,Vol.19,No.4,1984,p.272.
[24] Andrew Mumford,“Proxy Warfare and the Future of Conflict”,The RUSI Journal,April/May,2013,p.40;Andrew Mumford,“The New Era of the Proliferated Proxy War”,Real Clear Defense,November 16,2017,https://www.realcleardefense.com/articles/2017/11/16/the_new_era_of_the_proliferated_proxy_war_112648.html.
[25] Mark O.Yeisley,“Bipolarity,Proxy Wars,and the Rise of China”,Strategic Studies Quarterly,No.4,2011,pp.78-81;Miriam R.Eetrin,Jeremy Shapiro,“The Proxy War Problem in Syria”,Foreign Policy,Feb.4,2014,https://foreignpolicy.com/2014/02/04/the-proxywar-problem-in-syria/.
[26] Geraint Hughes,My Enermy's Enermy:Proxy Warfare in International Politics,UK:Sussex Academic Press,2012,pp.2,20-32,35-36;Daniel Byman,Deadly Connections States that Sponsor Terrorism,UK:Cambridge University Press,2005,p.36;Andrew Mumford,“The New Era of the Proliferated Proxy War”,the Strategy Bridge,November16,2017,https://thestrategybridge.org/the-bridge/2017/11/16/the-new-era-of-the-proliferated-proxy-war.
[27] US Department of Defense:Quadrennial Defense Review Report,2006,p.2;Quadrennial Defense Review Report,2010,p.8.
[28] Vladimir Rauta,“Proxy agents,auxiliary forces,and sovereign defection:assessing the outcomes of using non-state actors in civil conflicts”,Southeast European and Black Sea Studies,Vol.2,No.1,2016,p.104.
[29] Danniel Byman,“Approximating War”,The National Interest,Sep./Oct.,2018,pp.10-13;Philip Bobbitt,“The Shield of Achilles”,War,Peace and the Course of History,New York:Anchor Books,2003,p.331;Andrew Mumford,“Proxy Warfare and the Future of Conflict”,The RUSI Journal,April/May,2013,pp.41-42;Geraint Hughes,My Enermy's Enermy:Proxy Warfare in International Politics,2013,pp.20-31;Andrew Mumford,“The New Era of the Proliferated Proxy War”,Real Clear Defense,Nov.16,2017,https://www.realcleardefense.com/articles/2017/11/16/the_new_era_of_the_proliferated_proxy_war_112648.html;Steve Fernzi,“Want to built a better proxy in Syria?Lessons from Tibet”,Aug.17,2016,https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/want-to-build-a-better-proxy-in-syria-lessons-from-tibet/.
[30] Danniel Byman,“Approximating War”,National Interest,Sep/Oct,2018,pp.10-19.
[31] Andrew Mumford,“Proxy Warfare and the Future of Conflict”,The RUSI Journal,April/May,2013,p.41.
[32] 陈翔:《内战为何演化成代理人战争》,载《世界经济与政治》2018年第1期,第41—42页。
[33] Geraint Hughes,My Enermy's Enermy:Proxy Warfare in International Politics,UK:Sussex Academic Press,2012,p.39.
[34] Brian Glyn Williams,“Fighting with a Double-Edged Sword?”,in Making Sense of Proxy Wars,edited by Michael A.Innes,Washington,D.C.:Potomac Book,2012,pp.87-88.
[35] [美]道格拉斯·C.诺思:《制度、制度变迁与经济绩效》,杭行译,韦森审校,格致出版社2008年版,第64页。
[36] Terry M.Moe,“An Assessment of the Positive Theory of'Congressional Dominance'”,Legislative Studies Quarterly,Vol.12,No.4,1987,pp.475-520;Terry M.Moe,“The New Economics of Organization”,American Journal of Political Science,Vol.28,No.4,1984,pp.739-777;Barry M.Mitnick,“Incentive Systems in Environmental Regulation”,Policy Studies Journal,Vol.9,No.3,1980,pp.379-394;Michael C.Jensen,William H.Meckling,“Theory of the Firm:Managerial Behavior,Agency Costs and Ownership Structure”,Jounal of Finacial Economics,1976,p.308;蔡永顺:《代理人困境与国家治理:兼评“风险论”》,《社会》2017年第3期,第67—84页;[美]戴伦·霍金斯、戴维·莱克、丹尼尔·尼尔森、迈克尔·蒂尔尼编:《国际组织中的授权与代理》(Delegation and Agency in International Organization),白云真译,上海人民出版社2015年版;周雪光:《基层政府间的“共谋现象”——一个政府行为的制度逻辑》,《社会学研究》2008年第6期,第1—22页。
[37] Darren Hawkins,Wade Jacoby,“How agents matter?”,In Delegation and Agency in International Organizations,ed.Darren G.Hawkins,et al.,New York:Cambridge University Press,2006,p.199.
[38] Abbas Farasoo,“Rethinking Proxy War Theory in IR:A Critical Analysis of Principal-Agent Theory”,International Studies Review,Vol.23,No.4,2021,pp.1835-1858.
[39] Tyrone L.Groh,War on The Cheap?Assessing the Costs and Benefits of Proxy War,Georgetown University,Washington,D.C.,February 23,2010,p.3.
[40] Sam Heller,“A Syria Policy for Trump's America”,the Century Foundation,Dec.9,2016,https://tcf.org/content/report/syria-policy-trumps-america/?session=1.
[41] Brandon Merrell,“Denmark(1940-45):Armed Resistance and Agency Slippage in Germany's Model Protectorate”,in Proxy Wars Suppressing Violence through Local Agents,Edited by Eli Berman and David A.Lake,Cornell University Press,2019,pp.53-154.
[42] Hope Millard Harrison,Driving the Soviets up the Wall:Soviet-East German Relations(1953—1961),Princeton University Press,2003,pp.1-12.
[43] Seyom Brown,“Purposes and pitfalls of war by proxy:A systemic analysis”,Small Wars & Insurgencies,Vol.27,No.2,2016,p.250.
[44] Efraim Karsh,“The Tail Wags the Dog:International Politics and the Middle East”,Bloomsbury USA,Aug.,2015,pp.3-10.
[45] Candace Rondeaux,David Sterman,“Principal Rivalries & Proxy Dilemmas”,in the report on“Twenty-First Century Proxy Warfare:Confronting Strategic Innovation in a Multipolar World”,New America,Feb.20,2019,https://www.newamerica.org/international-security/reports/twenty-first-century-proxy-warfare-confronting-strategic-innovation-multipolar-world/principal-rivalries-proxy-dilemmas/.
[46] Daniel L.Byman,“Friends like These:Counterinsurgency and the War on Terrorism”,International Security,Vol.31,No.2,2006,p.112.
[47] C.Anthony Pfaff,“Strategic Insights:Proxy War Norms”,Army War College,U.S.,Dec.18,2017.
[48] Bertil Dunér,“Proxy Intervention in Civil Wars”,Journal of Peace Research,Vol.18,No.4,1981,p.356.
[49] Yaacov Bar Siman Tov,“The Strategy of War by Proxy”,Cooperation and Conflict,Vol.19,No.4,1984,p.270.
[50] Tyrone L.Groh,War on The Cheap?Assessing the Costs and Benefits of Proxy War,Georgetown University,Feb.23,2010,p.29.
[51] Daniel Byman,Sarah E.Kreps,“Agents of Destruction?Applying Principal-Agent Analysis to State-Sponsored Terrorism”,International Studies Perspectives,Vol.11,No.1,2010,pp.1-18.
[52] Idean Salehyan,Kristian Skrede Gleditsch and David E.Cunningham,“Explaining External Support for Insurgent Groups”,International Organization,No.4,2011,pp.710-735.
[53] Amos C.Fox,“Conflict and the Need for a Theory of Proxy Warfare”,Journal of Strategic Security,Vol.12,No.1,2019,p.57.
[54] Stephen Biddle,“Building Security Forces & Stabilizing Nations:The Problem of Agency”,Dœdalus,Journal of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences,Fall,2017,pp.126-135;Stephen Biddlea,Julia Macdonaldb and Ryan Bakerc,“Small footprint,small payoff:The military effectiveness of security force assistance”,The Journal of Strategic Studies,Vol.41,No. 1-2,2018,pp.90-132.
[55] Benjamin Tkach,“Private military and security companies,corporate,structure,and levels of violence in Iraq”,International Interactions,Vol.46,No.4,2020,pp.499-525.
[56] Robert Powell,“Why Some Persistent Problems Persist?”,American Political Science Review,Vol.113,No.4,2019,pp.980-996.
[57] Lucy Hovil,Eric Werker,“Portrait of a Failed Rebellion:an Account of Rational,Sub-Optimal Violence In Western Uganda”,Rationality and Society,Vol.17,No.1,2005,pp.24-34.
[58] Eli Berman,David A.Lake,Gerard Padro'I Miquel and Pierre Yared,“Principals,Agents,and Indirect Foreign Policies”,In Proxy Wars:Suppressing Transnational Violence through Local Agents,edited by Eli Berman and David A.Lake,Ithaca,NY:Cornell University Press,2019,pp.1-27.
[59] Ora Szekely,“A Friend in Need:The Impact of the Syrian Civil War on Syria's Clients”,Foreign Policy Analysis,Vol.12,No.3,2016,pp.450-468.
[60] Walter C.LadwigⅢ,The Forgotten Front:Patron-Client Relationships in Counterinsurgency,Cambridge University Press,2017,pp.1-7.
[61] Amos C.Fox,“Conflict and the Need for a Theory of Proxy Warfare”,Journal of Strategic Security,Vol.12,No.1,2019,p.44.
[62] Alexandra Stark,Ariel I.Ahram,“How the United States Can Escape the Middle East's Proxy Wars”,Philadelphia:Foreign Policy Research Institute,Oct.22,2019.
[63] Waleed Hazbun,“American Interventionism and the Geopolitical Roots of Yemen's Catastrophe”,Middle East Research and Information Project,Middle East Report,No.289,2018.
[64] 刘中民:《地区大国代理人战略的差异性研究——以中东宗教政治组织的赞助—代理关系为例》,《国际观察》2022年第5期。
[65] [美]戴维·莱克:《国家与国际关系》(第二章),载[澳]克里斯蒂安·罗伊-斯米特、[英]邓肯·斯尼达尔编《牛津国际关系手册》,方芳等译,译文出版社2019年版,第59页。
[66] J.J.Messner,“Fragile States Index Annual Report 2019”,The Fund for Peace,April 2019,https://fundforpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/9511904-fragilestatesindex.pdf.
[67] 左希迎:《非常规战争与战争形态的演变》,载《世界经济与政治》2020年第3期,第93页。
[68] Karl W.Deutsch,“External Involvement in Internal War”,in Harry Eckstein ed.,Internal War,New York:Free Press of Glencoe,1964,p.102;Yaacov Bar-Siman-Tov,“The Strategy of War by Proxy”,Cooperation and Conflict,Vol.19,No.4,1984,pp.263-265;R. Kim Cragin,“Semi-Proxy Wars and U.S.Counterterrorism Strategy”,Studies in Conflict & Terrorism,Vol.38,No.5,2015,p.312;Sean McFate,The New Rules of War:Victory in the Age of Durable Disorder,New York:William Morrow,2019,p.29;Ian Langford,“Finding Balance Between the Conventional and Unconventional in Future Warfare”,Strategy Bridge,December 4,2018,https://thestrategybridge.org/the-bridge/2018/12/4/finding-balancebetween-the-conventional-and-unconventional-in-future-warfare.
[69] 刘中民:《中东秩序的挑战者:既熟悉又陌生的非国家行为主体》,澎湃新闻,2022年9月5日。
[70] 非国家武装行为体指的是有能力和手段实施系统性暴力行动的非国家组织。
[71] Ibrahim Al-Marashi,“Why death of al-Qaeda's Ayman al-Zawahiri will have little impact”,Aljazeera,Aug.2,2022,https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2022/8/2/death-of-alqaeda-chief-unlikely-to-have-much-long-term-impact.
[72] 关于非国家武装在代理人战争中作用的探讨,可参见Daniel Byman,Deadly Connections:States that Sponsor Terrorism,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007;Idean Salehyan,“The Delegation of War to Rebel Organizations”,Journal of Conflict Resolution,Vol.54,No.3,2010,pp.493-515;Jeffrey M.Bale,“Terrorists as State:Separating Fact from Fiction”,in Michael A.Innes ed.,Making Sense of Proxy Wars:States,Surrogates & the Use of Force,Washington,D.C.:Potomac Books,2012,pp.1-30;Andrew Mumford,Proxy Warfare,UK:Polity Press,2013,pp.1-2,11;Daniel Byman,“Why Be a Pawn to a State?Proxy Wars From a Proxy's Perspective”,Lawfare,May 22,2018,https://www.lawfareblog.com/why-be-pawnstate-proxy-wars-proxys-perspective。
[73] James Kenneth Wither,“Outsourcing warfare:Proxy forces in contemporary armed conflicts”,Security and Defence Quarterly,Vol.31,No.4,2020,p.18.
[74] Tyrone L.Groh,War on The Cheap?Assessing The Costs And Benefits Of Proxy War,A Dis-sertation submitted to Georgetown University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy,February 2010,https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/bitstream/handle/10822/553084/grohTyrone.pdf;jsessionid=76BB49628A661F85D69504623FC21 8ED?sequence=1,p.4.
[75] Chris Loveman,“Assessing the phenomenon of proxy intervention”,Conflict,Security & Development,Vol.2,No.2,2002,p.30.
[76] [美]迈克尔·沃尔泽著:《正义与非正义战争:通过历史实例的道德论证》,任献辉译,社会科学文献出版社2015年版,第161—178页。
[77] 左希迎:《非常规战争与战争形态的演变》,载《世界经济与政治》2020年第3期,第85—94页。
[78] [美]罗伯特·盖茨:《责任:美国前国防部长罗伯特·盖茨回忆录》,陈逾前等译,广东人民出版社2016年版,第138—139页。
[79] [美]罗伯特·基欧汉:《世界政治研究中的大问题》(第四十二章),载[澳]克里斯蒂安·罗伊-斯米特、[英]邓肯·斯尼达尔编《牛津国际关系手册》,方芳等译,译文出版社2019年版,第710页。
[80] Sean McFate,The New Rules of War:Victory in the Age of Durable Disorder,New York:William Morrow,2019.
[81] Danniel Byman,“Approximating War”,The National Interest,September/October,No.157,2018,pp.12-13;Idean Salehyan,Kristian Skrede Gleditsch and David E.Cunningham,“Explaining External Support for Insurgent Groups”,International Organization,Vol.65,No.4,2011,p.714;Idean Salehyan,“The Delegation of War to Rebel Organizations”,Journal of Conflict Resolution,Vol.54,No.3,2010,pp.503-504.
[82] Eli Berman,David A.Lake,Gerard Padrói Miquel,and Pierre Yared,“Principals,Agents,and Indirect Foreign Policies”,in Eli Berman and David A.Lake edited,Proxy Wars:Suppressing Violence through Local Agents,Ithaca:Cornell University Press,2018,p.12.
[83] 李汉松:《迈克尔·沃尔泽谈战争、国际社会与正义》,澎湃新闻,2020年5月24日,https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_7525728,访问时间:2021年7月15日。
[84] Idean Salehyan,“The Delegation of War to Rebel Organizations”,Journal of Conflict Resolution,Vol.54,No.3,2010,p.497.
[85] Tyrone L.Groh,War on The Cheap?Assessing The Costs and Benefits of Proxy War,A Dis-sertation submitted to Georgetown University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy,Feb.2010,p.1.
[86] Eric S.Edelman,Ray Takeyh,“The Next Iranian Revolution:Why Washington Should Seek Regime Change in Tehran”,Foreign Affairs,May/June,2020,pp.131-145.
[87] 陈翔:《内战为何演化为代理人战争》,载《世界经济与政治》2018年第1期,第29—32页。
[88] 王林聪:《中东安全问题及其治理》,载《世界经济与政治》2017年第12期,第17—22页;章远:《中东政治发展危机的安全结构约束》,载《西亚非洲》2019年第6期,第22—37页。
[89] 马提亚斯·冯·海因(Matthias von Hein):《卡扎菲被推翻5年后的利比亚》,《德国之声》2016年10月20日。
[90] Will Marshall,“Drones,Disinformation and Proxies:What the Middle East's‘Forever Wars’tell Us about the Future of Conflict”,Global Risk Insights,February 14,2022,https://globalriskinsights.com/2022/02/drones-disinformation-and-proxies-what-the-middleeasts-forever-wars-tell-us-about-the-future-of-conflict/.
[91] Erica Dreyfus Borghard,“Friends with Benefits?Power and Influence in Proxy Warfare”,Doctoral Dissertation,Colunbia University,2014,p.6.
[92] Alexandra Stark,“Give up on Proxy Wars in the Middle East”,Foreign Policy,Aug.7,2020,https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/08/07/united-states-give-up-on-proxy-wars-middle-east/.
[93] Fawza Gerges,“The Obama Approach to the Middle East:the End of America's Moment?”,International Affairs,Vol.89,No.2,2013,p.299.
[94] 牛新春:《美国中东政策:开启空中干预时代》,载《西亚非洲》2017年第1期,第14页。
[95] “Remarks by President Trump at the 2020 United States Military Academy at West Point Graduation Ceremony”,The White House,June 13,2020,https://trumpwhitehouse.archives. gov/briefings-statements/remarks-president-trump-2020-united-states-military-academy-westpoint-graduation-ceremony/.
[96] 参见张帆《战略收缩背景下特朗普政府在中东的进退得失》,载吴白乙、倪峰主编《美国蓝皮书:美国研究报告(2019)》,社会科学文献出版社2019年版,第246—260页;F.Gregory GauseⅢ,“Should We Stay or Should We Go?The United States and the Middle East”,Survival,Vol.61,No.5,2019,pp.7-24。
[97] Amos C.Fox,“Conflict and the Need for a Theory of Proxy Warfare”,Journal of Strategic Security,Vol.12,No.1,2019,p.47.
[98] Angus Lee,“U.S Proxy Warfare:Patterns in Middle Eastern Conflicts”,LSE,Sep.3,2019.
[99] Nick Turse,“Washington puts its money on proxy war”,Aljazeera,Aug.15,2012,https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2012/08/20128128345053728.html.
[100] C.Anthony Pfaff,“Strategic Insights:Proxy War Norms”,the U.S.Arm War College,Dec.18,2017,https://ssi.armywarcollege.edu/index.cfm/articles/Proxy-War-Norms/2017/12/18;姚全:《“离岸平衡”战略:客观条件、核心目标与实现手段》,《太平洋学报》2020年第4期,第26—41页。
[101] Andreas Krieg,“Externalizing the burden of war:the Obama Doctrine and U.S.foreign policy in the Middle East”,International Affairs,Vol.92,No.1,2016,pp.98-104.
[102] Ryan Lizza,“Leading From Behind”,New Yorker,April 26,2011;Ryan Lizza,“The Consequentialist:How the Arab Spring remade Obama's foreign policy”,New Yorker,April 25,2011,https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/05/02/the-consequentialist.
[103] Geoffrey Stern,The Structure of International Society:An Introduction to Study of International Relations,London:Pinter Publishers Limited,2000,p.216.
[104] U.S.Department of Defense,“Sustaining U.S.Global Leadership:Priorities for 21st Century Defense”,January,2012,p.6.
[105] International Crisis Group,“A Force in Fragments:Reconstituting the Afghan National Army”,May 12,2010,https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/190-a-force-in-fragmentsreconstituting-the-afghan-national-army.pdf.
[106] Seyom Brown,“Purposes and Pitfalls of War by Proxy:A Systemic Analysis”,Small Wars & Insurgencies,Vol.27,No.2,2016,p.243.
[107] Alexandra Stark,“Give up on Proxy Wars in Middle East”,Foreign Policy,Aug.7,2020,https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/08/07/united-states-give-up-on-proxy-wars-middleeast/.
[108] Alexandra Stark,Ariel I.Ahram,“How the United States Can Escape the Middle East's Proxy Wars”,Philadelphia:Foreign Policy Research Institute,Oct.22,2019.
[109] Mark Mazzetti,Adam Goldman and Michael S.Schmidt,“Behind the Sudden Death of a$1 Billion Secret C.I.A.War in Syria”,The New York Times,Aug.2,2017,https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/02/world/middleeast/cia-syria-rebel-arm-train-trump.html.
[110] Brittany Benowitz,Alicia Ceccanese,“Why No One Ever Really Wins a Proxy War”,Just Security,School of Law for New York University,May 11,2020.
[111] Candace Rondeaux and David Sterman,“Twenty-First Century Proxy Warfare”,New America,Feb.20,2019.
[112] Brittany Benowitz,Tommy Ross,“Time to Get a Handle on America's Conduct of Proxy Warfare”,Lawfare Institute,April 9,2020.
[113] Helen Warrell,“Future of Warfare:High-tech Militias Fight Smouldering Proxy Wars”,Finace Times,Jan.21,2020,https://www.ft.com/content/ab49c39c-1c0c-11ea-81f0-0c253907d3e0.
[114] [美]约翰·米尔斯海默:《大国政治的悲剧》,王义桅、唐小松译,上海人民出版社2015年版,第413页;Mark O.Yeisley,“Bipolarity,Proxy Wars,and the Rise of China”,Strategic Studies Quarterly,Vol.5,No.4,2011,pp.82-86。
[115] Kathleen H.Hicks,etc.,“By Other Means”,PART I,“Campaign in the Gray Zone”,A Report of the CSIS International Security Program,CSIS,July,2019,https://csisprod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/publication/Hicks_GrayZone_interior_v4_FULL_ WEB.pdf.
[116] 张家栋:《多边疆战争:未来战争的可能形态》,《人民论坛·学术前沿》2021年第10期,第56—63页。
[117] Candace Rondeaux,David Sterman,“Twenty-First Century Proxy Warfare:Confronting Strategic Innovation in a Multipolar World”,New America,Feb.,2019,p.7.
[118] Sean McFate,The New Rules of War:Victory in the Age of Durable Disorder,New York:William Morrow,2019,pp.246-248。Sean McFate在安全战略研究上获得很高的评价,美国海军上将、北约盟军前最高指挥官詹姆斯·斯塔夫里迪斯(James Stavridis),现为塔夫斯大学弗莱彻法律与外交学院院长,称赞他是“一个新的孙子”(A New Sun Tzu)。
[119] Frank Hoffman,Andrew Orner,“The Return of Great-power Proxy Wars”,War on The Rocks,Sep.21,2021.